The Great Dying

 The White Rim

To set a camera here, in the Island in the Sky district of Canyonlands, is to frame a question of geology. The landscape demands it. A prominent bench of stone, a stark and brilliant white, circles the canyons below the rim, providing the route for a hundred-mile track known as the White Rim Trail. This rock is more than a foundation for a road; it is a line drawn in the strata, a division between two worlds. The White Rim Sandstone marks the boundary between the Permian Period and the Triassic—the end of the Paleozoic Era. It is the geologic chapter break for the most profound biological crisis in the planet’s history. The story told at the contact between this white stone and the red rock laid down above it is one of a planet’s climate pushed past a threshold by carbon dioxide, of oceans turned hostile, of a biological reset. The mechanisms of that ancient catastrophe, written here in stone, carry a certain resonance now.

The world of the Late Permian was a system under immense and protracted stress.For tens of millions of years, the planet had been tectonically reconfiguring itself into the supercontinent Pangaea, a process that created extreme climates and, more critically, began to dismantle the planet’s primary climate-regulating mechanism. In the preceding Carboniferous Period, the mountain-building collisions that formed Pangaea had exposed vast quantities of silicate rock. For millions of years, the chemical weathering of these mountains drew enormous amounts of CO₂ from the atmosphere, acting as a planetary thermostat. But by the Late Permian, those mountains had largely eroded. The tectonic activity had waned. The Earth had lost its most effective tool for sequestering carbon, leaving the climate exquisitely vulnerable.

The consequences are recorded in the chemistry of the seas. With the thermostat broken, atmospheric CO₂ began a slow, inexorable rise. The oceans absorbed it, and their pH began to fall. In the Early Permian, shallow seas were dominated by prolific “carbonate factories”—reefs and shelled organisms. By the Late Permian, these were gone, replaced by a “silica factory” of chert, composed almost entirely of the glassy spicules of sponges. The calcite compensation depth—the water depth at which seawater becomes corrosive to shells—had shoaled dramatically, making it biochemically impossible for most calcifying life to survive even near the surface. Simultaneously, the deep oceans were becoming progressively anoxic, starved of oxygen. The biosphere was being driven toward a precipice.

The final push came from deep within the crust. Two hundred and fifty-two million years ago, in a region now known as the Siberian Traps, fissures opened and began to spew immense volumes of basaltic lava.This was not a volcano but a large igneous province, an event that bled magma for perhaps a million years, ultimately covering an area the size of western Europe. Critically, this magma did not just flow over the surface; it intruded into and ignited the vast, carbon-rich coal basins of Permian Siberia.It set a continent-sized fossil fuel reserve on fire.

The geochemical fingerprints of this event are undeniable. In marine sediments from Arctic Canada, precisely at the extinction horizon, researchers have found microscopic particles of fly ash, morphologically identical to the waste from a modern coal-burning power plant. In the very same layers, there is a sharp and dramatic spike in mercury concentrations. This evidence forms an indelible link: the Siberian Traps, amplified by continental-scale coal combustion, had triggered a runaway thermal event.

The result was a cascade of interconnected kill mechanisms that affected every part of the Earth system. Atmospheric CO₂ may have risen to thirty times modern values, pushing the global average temperature to exceed forty degrees Celsius. Halogens released from the eruptions ripped apart the stratospheric ozone layer, leading to lethal spikes in ultraviolet radiation—an increase of five thousand percent at the poles. The oceans absorbed the CO₂, leading to extreme hypercapnia and acidification. Warmed to the temperature of a hot tub, the equatorial seas became lethal to plankton, collapsing the entire marine food web from its base.

In these suffocating, anoxic waters, certain anaerobic microbes could now thrive. Green and purple sulfur bacteria, which produce hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) as waste, bloomed in unparalleled numbers, turning the seas a lurid, alien purple. A chemical fingerprint of these organisms, a biomarker called isorenieratene, confirms their presence. Eventually, the toxic gas would have exsolved from the water, poisoning the terrestrial realm. As the paleontologist Peter Ward has said, "The microbes are still out there… they really want their world back and they’ve tried over and over and over again."

The biological toll was staggering. In the seas, ninety-six percent of all species vanished. The trilobites, after a run of two hundred and seventy million years, were gone. On land, seventy percent of vertebrate species perished. In the face of this near-total annihilation, the synapsid Lystrosaurus, a pig-sized herbivore, emerged as a key survivor.Its compact body was well-suited for a burrowing lifestyle, which would have offered protection from the heat and radiation. It was one of the few winners of the apocalypse.

For the next five million years, the world was an ecologically monotonous landscape. These “disaster faunas” were overwhelmingly dominated by a single genus; in some places, Lystrosaurus accounted for ninety-five percent of all terrestrial vertebrates. The recovery was uniquely prolonged because the Siberian Traps did not fall silent. For millions of years, the volcanic system remained active, delivering renewed pulses of CO₂ and mercury, each pulse acting as a hammer blow, knocking back any attempt by life to rediversify.

A Modern Resonance

The agent of the Great Dying was carbon, liberated from the lithosphere and injected into the atmosphere on a geologic timescale. The Siberian Traps, by igniting Permian coal, tapped into a vast fossil fuel reserve. We are now, through industrial means, engaged in a similar enterprise. The critical difference, and the one that is a matter of sobering concern to paleoclimatologists, is one of tempo. The rate at which humanity is releasing carbon into the atmosphere is, by most estimates, at least an order of magnitude faster than the rate of release that triggered the End-Permian extinction. In the rock record, our current emissions spike will look nearly instantaneous.

The symptoms of this rapid injection show a disquieting family resemblance to the Permian crisis. As atmospheric CO₂ rises, the oceans are once again absorbing it, leading to a measurable drop in pH.6 The collapse of the Permian "carbonate factories" finds a modern echo in the global bleaching of coral reefs and the struggles of shell-building plankton. The warming of the seas is likewise causing the expansion of oxygen minimum zones—"dead zones"—a modern prelude to the widespread anoxia that characterized the Permian seas. The Great Dying serves as a planetary-scale case study in how interconnected systems respond to a massive carbon pulse. It demonstrates that the consequences are not linear but can cascade, triggering feedback loops that push the entire biosphere past a threshold from which recovery is a matter of millions of years.

An Evolutionary Echo

There is a final, startling postscript to this story of ancient poison. The researcher Mark Roth, exploring ways to preserve wounded soldiers, discovered that exposing a mammal to a low concentration of hydrogen sulfide can induce a state of reversible hibernation. The gas appears to trigger a metabolic shutdown, an evolutionary echo from a time when our distant ancestors endured these sulfidic events by waiting them out. An ancient planetary kill switch, repurposed as a life-preserver.

Driving the White Rim today, you travel on the tranquil, sun-baked surface of that final Permian desert. Below you are the rock layers holding the complex Paleozoic world. Above you, in the red cliffs of the Moenkopi, is the evidence of the empty world that followed. The profound silence of the Triassic is palpable in the stone. There are few fossils. It is the physical record of the long, slow dawn that followed The Great Dying, a world reset by its own internal machinery.

Thanks for stopping by and having a read.

All images posted on the buzzshawphoto.blogspot.com 2025 are copyrighted. All rights reserved

A Dive into Geology: Canyonlands White Rim Sandstone

This landscape, in a place like southeastern Utah, is not a place you simply look at. It is a place you read, a book with chapters laid out one upon the next, each page a testament to eons of slow, deliberate change. The pages are the stratigraphic column, a chronicle of deposition, of what was, and when. And as I review the images captured last week at the Green River Overlook, my eye falls once more on the most prominent of these chapters, the one that gives a name to so much here: the White Rim Sandstone.

It is a layer that announces its presence, a ribbon of white stone that traces a line around the Island in the Sky mesa, a geographical calling card for both geologist and off-road enthusiast. It is, to a degree, the reason for the Island itself, a durable caprock resting above softer, more easily eroded layers. To stand on the mesa is to look out over a vast and layered world, a series of canyons, each descending into the next. The White Rim is the highwater mark, a band of white suspended above the striated red of the Organ Rock Formation, the latter forming the deepest canyons, its hues repeated in the spires of Fisher Towers, miles to the east, in the Paradox Valley.

The White Rim Sandstone forms the edge leading into the deeper Canyon of the Organ Rock Formation

The White Rim Sandstone is found in the upper part of the Cutler Group.

For the adventurous, the White Rim is more than a layer of rock. It is a road, a hundred-plus-mile track that circumambulates the Island in the Sky. It is a commitment, a journey that demands a capable vehicle and a permit, a piece of paper so sought-after that planning for it often begins a year in advance. This is a road that does not forgive. Rain, a significant factor in this arid landscape, turns the track into something else entirely—a quagmire of mud and sand. A disabled vehicle is not just an inconvenience; it is a problem that requires a very expensive solution. The National Park Service, a patient and long-suffering organization, has its rules, and one of them is that you move your vehicle out. So you plan ahead, you stay flexible, and you have alternative routes in your back pocket. The landscape, after all, is full of them.

For those wanting to go into more depth about the Geology the White Rim Sandstone I've put this summary together and I'll revist this subject in a later narrative.

Canyonlands and Moab Region Geology

This briefing synthesizes information from various geological sources to provide a comprehensive overview of the key geological themes, ideas, and facts pertaining to Canyonlands National Park and the wider Moab region, with a particular focus on the White Rim Sandstone.

I. Fundamental Geological Principles

Understanding the geology of Canyonlands requires a grasp of fundamental geological principles:

Uniformitarianism: "The present is the key to the past." This principle posits that Earth's processes have operated consistently throughout geological history, allowing us to interpret past environments based on present-day observations. For example, ripple marks observed in ancient rocks closely resemble those seen in modern rivers or lakes, providing insight into past conditions.

Original Horizontality: Sedimentary layers are almost always deposited horizontally under the influence of gravity. If curved or tilted layers are found, it indicates that deformation occurred after their initial deposition, with the deformation of lower layers preceding that of overlying, undeformed layers.

Superposition: In undisturbed rock sequences, the oldest rocks are at the bottom, and the youngest rocks are at the top, laid down chronologically in layers.

Rock Types:Igneous Rocks: Formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava (e.g., La Sal Mountains).

Metamorphic Rocks: Rocks transformed physically or chemically by heat, pressure, or liquids (e.g., schist in Black Canyon of the Gunnison).

Sedimentary Rocks: Formed from the deposition and lithification of sediments, prevalent throughout Utah and Canyonlands.

II. Geological History and Formations of Canyonlands and Moab

The geological landscape of Canyonlands and the Moab area is a result of a long history of depositional environments and subsequent tectonic and erosional processes, spanning hundreds of millions of years.

A. Depositional Environments and Key Rock Layers (Oldest to Youngest):

Paradox Formation (Base Layer):

Formed approximately 300 million years ago from the evaporation of an ancient ocean, consisting of mineral salts like gypsum, anhydrite, and halite.

Crucially, this salt layer behaves like a liquid under pressure, causing "salt tectonics" which significantly impacts overlying rock layers, leading to warping (anticlines and synclines) and movement. This is critical for understanding structures like Upheaval Dome.

Cutler Group: A package of sediments shed from the Ancestral Rocky Mountains (western Colorado/northeast of Moab) during the Permian period (290-275 million years ago). In Canyonlands, it's divided into four layers:

Hagashiya Formation (not extensively discussed)

Cedar Mesa Sandstone (The Needles):Composed of near-shore sand dunes intermingling with darker red sediments from periodic floods originating from the Uncompahgre Mountains, creating a "candy cane" striped appearance.

The distinctive "needles" formations are a result of jointing (small cracks or fractures) where water weathering and erosion have cut into these weaknesses.

Organ Rock Shale:A darkish brown-red layer found in the deeper parts of the canyons, deposited in marine lowland, braided stream, and tidal flat environments.

It is "very easily weatherable."

White Rim Sandstone:Age and Origin: Permian age (290-275 million years ago), a member of the Cutler Formation. Deposited in a "coastal eolian and associated interdune environments" during a period of marine transgression.

Sediment Source: Sand grains were shed from the Ancestral Rocky Mountains to the northeast.

Uniqueness: Stands out due to its "off-white color, and the fact one can discern the edge of its ancient sand dune environment."

Localized Nature: "Very localized to island in the sky district," thinning significantly to the east near the Colorado River. It provides a "strong foundation for everything else to sit on it," protecting the softer Organ Rock Shale below and contributing to the formation of the Island in the Sky mesa.

Depositional Units: Comprises two main units: a dune unit (coastal dune field) and an interdune unit (related ponds).

Dune Unit Structures: Characterized by "large- to medium-scale, unidirectional, tabular-planar cross-bedding," "high-index ripples," "coarse-grained lag layers," "avalanche or slump marks," and "raindrop impressions." Cross-bedding indicates deposition as transverse ridges by a dominant northwest to southeast wind.

Interdune Unit Structures: Shows "wavy, horizontally laminated bedding, adhesion ripples, and desiccation polygons." These features suggest alternating wet and dry conditions and water-table fluctuations in coastal ponds or sebkhas. Bioturbation (evidence of biological activity) is also present.

Coloration (Diagenesis): Its white color is not original but a result of post-depositional chemical reactions (diagenesis). Originally reddish due to hematite (rust), it was later "bleached through chemical reactions that removed its iron-bearing minerals" by migrating petroleum and hydrocarbons between 35 and 40 million years ago.

Economic Geology: Contains "major petroleum reserves and contains the largest tar sand deposit in the United States." These deposits are largely in the Elaterite Basin, trapped by the updip pinchout of the White Rim. It is generally unfavorable for economic uranium deposits.

Moenkopi Formation:

A "muddy brown rock" that often gets overlooked but contains significant sedimentary structures.

Sedimentary structures like "ripple rock" are direct evidence of past environments, supporting uniformitarianism by resembling modern features (e.g., river or lake bottoms).

Chinle Formation:

A "very flashy layer" known for its "striking greenish purple" and other diverse colors.

Represents a "swamp-like environment," similar to modern-day Louisiana, rich in organic matter, including abundant petrified wood.

Uranium History: Historically significant for uranium mining in the Moab area during the 1950s due to the Cold War. Uranium, a naturally occurring weakly radioactive element, is thought to have concentrated in these swampy, low-oxygen environments through chemical interactions with volcanic ash and petrified wood.

Charlie Steen and the Mi Vida Mine: The discovery of high-grade pitchblende by petroleum engineer Charlie Steen, who drilled for uranium against conventional wisdom, led to significant wealth and contribution to the Moab community.

Wingate Sandstone:

Forms the "striking cliffs we see at Canyonlands," representing "wind blown sand dunes deposited in the Jurassic."

Very resistant to weathering and erosion, breaking off in "huge chunks" and creating the area's characteristic "very vertical look."

Kayenta Sandstone:

A thin, "brown ledge forming sandstone" representing an "intermittent period where braided streams and kind of monsoon came through."

Notable for containing dinosaur tracks.

Navajo Sandstone:

The "youngest layer in Canyonlands" and "one of the largest examples of windblown sandstones in the rock record."

Famously known for its distinctive cross-bedding, a pattern formed by wind blowing sand grains over dunes, which then fall in parallel rows, with subsequent changes in wind direction or erosion creating the crisscross effect. It is much thicker further west (e.g., Zion National Park).

B. Uplift and Erosion of the Colorado Plateau:

Laramide Orogeny: Around 50 million years ago, during the Laramide Orogeny (the same mountain-building process that created the Rocky Mountains), the Colorado Plateau experienced significant uplift. This was caused by the Farallon plate subducting unusually shallowly beneath the North American plate, grinding across the bottom and pushing up the region.

Canyon Formation: The uplift raised environments originally at or near sea level (like oceanic deposits, tidal flats, and swamps) to an elevation of approximately 4,000 feet.

Differential Erosion: The carving of canyons by rivers (Colorado and Green Rivers), along with flash floods, rain, freeze-thaw cycles, and gravity, results in varying canyon morphologies.

Canyonlands: Features "very wide canyons" due to a mix of hard and softer rocks, leading to a "stair-step look" (e.g., hard Wingate, soft Chinle/Moenkopi, then hard White Rim). Water tends to erode horizontally before going down if rocks are soft.

Grand Canyon: Deeper canyons due to harder schist layers at lower depths, causing the river to cut down rather than out.

Black Canyon of the Gunnison: Very narrow canyons formed by rivers cutting straight down through extremely hard schist.

C. Upheaval Dome: An Enigma:

A prominent geological feature in Canyonlands, characterized by a "huge hole in the ground" with material rising in the center.

Two Primary Theories:Salt Dome Theory: Pressure from surrounding geological changes caused the underlying Paradox Formation salt to flow upwards, dragging overlying material with it to form the central uplift.

Meteor Impact Crater Theory: A meteorite impact created the crater, and the central uplift is a result of isostatic rebound, where material springs back up after the initial impact compression. The material in the center is estimated to be 400-500 feet higher than it should be.

Combined Theory: The most compelling explanation suggests a combination of both: a meteorite impact initiated the deformation, and the underlying salt layer facilitated or enhanced the isostatic rebound, contributing to the uplift. This highlights the "gray area" in geological interpretation, where phenomena are not always "black or white."

III. Key Takeaways

The geology of Canyonlands and Moab is a dynamic story of sediment deposition in ancient marine, coastal, and terrestrial environments, followed by tectonic uplift, and continuous weathering and erosion.

The White Rim Sandstone is a critical geological unit, representing an ancient coastal dune field. Its distinctive white color is a post-depositional feature caused by hydrocarbon bleaching, and it plays a significant role in shaping the landscape of Island in the Sky.

The underlying Paradox Formation salt is a major geological driver, influencing the deformation of overlying layers and potentially contributing to unique features like Upheaval Dome.

The region has a rich economic geology, particularly with the historical uranium boom tied to the Chinle Formation and the significant petroleum reserves within the White Rim Sandstone.

Geological interpretation often involves piecing together evidence from sedimentary structures, mineralogy, and stratigraphic relationships, sometimes leading to complex or combined theories to explain phenomena like Upheaval Dome.

All images posted on the buzzshawphoto.blogspot.com 2025 are copyrighted. All rights reserved.